Each country designs its foreign policies as per it’s strengths and weaknesses but what Japan chose was entirely different. Post-WW-II, Japan did not have the option to remilitarize itself and hence, chose the way of becoming a ‘Soft Power’. ‘Soft Power’ can be defined as the ability of a country to persuade others to do what it wants without the use of force or money, presenting itself as a peaceful nation. “Soft power” was coined by Professor Joseph Nye which he defines as an ability to attract and co-opt, rather than coercion i.e. by avoiding the use of force or money as a means of persuasion (Nye 1990; 2004). Since then, the concept has widely been discussed in international affairs. The soft power of a country rests on 3 important pillars: A country’s Media Culture, it's democratic politics and its respectful Foreign Policies. Although Nye had applied the concept primarily to the United States, the Japanese government found the concept attractive and applied it to the case of Japan.
Since Culture is the essence of a country’s Soft Power, Japan has always considered its ‘Cultural diplomacy’ or ‘Nation Branding’ of utmost importance. With the help of ‘Soft Power,’ it is very easy to improve, degrade or modify a country’s image in the eyes of the world. When East Asia is experiencing rapid changes in its strategic situations, Japan’s Soft Power is a passive way to create Japan’s positive image and promote its interest internationally, so that during turmoil it can be supported by the rest of the world. Soft Power is a way through which Japan is able to attract the population around the Globe to alter their behavior towards it in such a way that they always co-operate on international issues.
Need for Soft power for a New Image
After World War 2 Japan’s new Constitution was formed under the American Occupation with Article-9 as it’s ‘Peace Clause’ with an objective to demilitarize the nation. As noted by Utpal Vyas (2008), Japan is experienced in using softer forms of power due to externally imposed constitutional restrictions on its use of military force in international affairs. Simply put, while hard power is restricted, soft power plays a crucial role in Japan's national power.
In 1970, when Japan began growing economically, America and several other Asian countries were suspicious about its intentions. These anti-Japanese feelings were taken as a challenge by the Japanese leaders which led to the establishment of the ‘Japan Foundation’ under ‘Fukuda Doctrine’ 1972. Japan Foundation is an extended part of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs with the sole motive of promoting Japanese culture abroad to create an appealing image. Japan was the first country in East Asia to embrace the concept of soft power as an instrument of its foreign affairs and security policy, particularly because of its constitutional constraints on the use of military hard power (Yasushi, McConnell 2008). Nye asserted that Japan has more potential soft power resources than any other Asian country and is the first non-Western country, which has the same level of income and technology as the Western countries.
In the 1990s when the number of Middle-Class Youth was increasing all over Asia, Japanese Pop Culture (anime, manga, etc.) was recognized as a blessing in changing Japan's image globally. The new generation which had not experienced the brutality of the war times portrayed a very colorful and attractive image of Japan in their minds. Cultural Media has proven itself as an important aspect of Japan’s Soft Power creating an attractive platform for common people of different nations where they can closely connect to each other and proceed with the conversations which were not possible earlier. Thus, Cultural Media has undoubtedly changed the war-time oppressive image of Japan.
According to annual surveys by the Monocle Magazine, Japan has always been listed in Top 10 nations with soft power (ranked 7th in 201287) and currently, Japan acquires one of the leading positions in terms of nation branding (ranked 3rd in the 2012-2013 Top 25 Country Brands). However, Japan still faces a number of obstacles in maintaining and enhancing its soft power.
Japan’s Soft Power till date
Most of the Youngsters perceive Japan as a “Cool” Nation. When Japan was facing serious economic and political turmoil this ‘Cool’ stature helped Japan to rise as cultural Superpower. Even now, on the one hand, Japan is facing Demographic transitions and difficulties related to its Aging society but on the other hand, it is adopting some cool policies like that of Emigration Policy to attract the world. In a journal of Foreign Policy in 2002, an article titled “Japan’s Gross National Cool”, by Douglas McGray referred Japan as “reinventing superpower” as it expanded its cultural influence globally despite the economic
and political turmoils of it's lost decade. With a survey of the youth culture and the role of manga, anime, consumer electronics, cuisine, etc. Douglas argued about Japan's considerable potential as soft power. He also argued about the possibility of that Japan’s recession as a boost to Japan's national cool, due to changes in the rigid social hierarchies and big-business paths. Japan Cool, the concept of the attraction of Japan's pop culture has become the unique “brand name” of the Japanese culture. In today’s time when Japan is being recognized as the Land of Peace and Harmony, this Soft power is also evolving as an economic booster. Japan has been successfully able to promote its culture globally through:-
• ART- One example of traditional culture which embraces a great attraction not only to Japanese people but also to people around the world is Haiku, a short and special form of Japanese poetry. With a history of over 400 years, Haiku has been developed in over 50 countries around the globe with about 2 million people writing Haiku poems in 30 different languages. Japan’s famous tea-ceremony culture has created a new love for matcha (a Japanese green tea) among foreigners.
• FASHION- From the time of Kimonos to the times of teen fashion styles in Harajuku, Japan’s Otaku Culture is unique and well-known in the World.
• SPORTS- Japan and Sumo-wrestling go hand in hand. Similar is the case of Judo which is also played during the Olympics. Both the Sports have impressed the global audience.
• TECHNOLOGY- Japan has always been regarded among the most technologically advanced countries. Apart from all the new gadgets which are being innovated in the Japanese cities, Japanese are great in developing Mobile apps, Video Games, Manga, Anime, etc. which are being played and used globally. Moreover, with the assistance of technological advancements including the internet, the international community has been familiar with and become fond of Japan's cultural products such as J-pop, Japan's television dramas, video games, and manga.
• FOOD- Sushi, Washoku, Sashimi, Tempura, Sake, Ramen, etc. are no more only the Street foods of japan but are being eaten with love everywhere. For example, if asked about Japanese cuisine, most will have the same answer “sushi”. A long queue of foreigners waiting for their call outside the restaurant Genki Sushi in Shibuya, Tokyo reveals the attraction of Japanese cuisine internationally.
• Tourism, Compulsory Education System, Waste Management, etc. all these systems seem very appealing to foreigners.
Japanese culture, including both traditional and popular culture, has been increasingly popular around the world. As Lee and Melissen (2011) put it, “Japan's cultural attraction, both for the distinctive elements of Japan`s ancient culture and modern culture has been the most distinguishing part of its soft power”.
Gilbert Rozman (2007) suggested that the high degree of Japan's soft power derives from the charm of her affluent and free society and the appeal of her traditional as well as contemporary culture. The Japanese government also acknowledged that culture is an important field within the diplomacy of Japan, and its role has become more and more important in recent years. Apart from exporting cultural products, Japan has organized various cultural activities to promote its culture and values. For example, with the establishment and development of the Japan Foundation all over the world, Japan aims to provide Japanese language training, art performance and Japan study to people around the globe. In addition, various activities and events are held around the world to celebrate and follow Japanese pop culture such as cosplay, origami paper crafts, etc. This Global admiration is an outcome of the active promotion by Japan Foundation, MEXT, METI, JICA, etc. who execute these promotions under a policy plan. Government, as well as Private Institutions that carry out these cultural promotions, have over the period developed as a means to grow the Japanese Economy. These institutions promote Cultural trends as a part of the policy plan apparatus wherein the face of it, it is aimed at promoting cross-cultural exchange but in the reality, it is about promoting Japan-ness to various lands. This has not just raised Japan’s stature in the World but also resulted in heavy Tourism Inflow. Utpal Vyas (2008) noted that the Japan Foundation, as a cultural agency of the Japanese government, was expected to enable the process of enabling Japan's ideas and values to be accepted and integrated by foreign publics through a range of cultural activities. If this process is successful, the Foundation can be considered to be an agent of Japan's soft power. Furthermore, in Otmazgin`s (2012) analysis, Japan's cultural policy and cultural diplomacy have changed dramatically over the past one hundred years, from actively introducing and imposing Japanese culture during its empire-building period, to essentially avoiding the promotion of Japanese culture in Asia for most of the postwar period, and more recently, to supporting and encouraging the export of Japanese contemporary culture and lifestyle in order to obtain “soft power”. Therefore, it is undeniable that culture has served as an important element which helps enhance Japan's soft power as well as its national power
Political Values and Foreign policy
“Japan has long been characterized as a largely conservative, group-based society where the individual's freedom of thought and expression is positioned secondary to group obligations”. This culture has exerted a profound impact on Japanese political behavior and values. The concepts of uniformity, homogeneity, and hierarchy are often mentioned in Japanese traditional political values. Moreover, Japan's key political values can be clearly seen in its present constitution with the desire and commitment for peace. As stated in article 9, “the Japanese people forever renounce war as a sovereign right of the nation and the threat or use of force as means of settling international disputes”. And the preamble of the constitution clearly states the importance of Peace, Human Rights, and Human Security. Regarding human security, Japan takes into account both the elements of freedom from fear and freedom from want. Japan is also the founder and the main donor of the UN Trust Fund for Human Security. As a matter of fact, Japan does not have any universal political values to export to other countries (like the case of the United States or the United Kingdom with democracy or human rights). Moreover, despite strongly supporting liberal and democratic values, the Japanese government has not effectively utilized political ideology in its international relations. Therefore, political values are not and cannot be an important instrument of Japan’s soft power (the most important one should be its culture, as analyzed above).
Japan’s Foreign Policy Since the end of World War II, maintaining a close relationship with the United States has been a foundation of Japan's foreign policy. The two countries signed the Security Treaty in 1951. Since then the treaty has experienced several times of revision and renewal, and the Japan-US relations have been increasingly close. Japan has benefited much from this treaty. The most significant one is to focus on foreign policy on economic development. Another benefit that is closely related to a source of Japan's soft power is to attract other US allies. Apart from the security treaty with the United States, ODA policy is also of great importance in Japan's foreign policy. Official Development Aid (in the form of grants and loan aid) from Japan prioritizes economic development, economic interdependence, and political stability. Since the late 1970s, the Japanese government has provided a great amount of ODA to underdeveloped countries with the aim of expanding its international influence.
Furthermore, Japan has realized the significance of its culture as a source of soft power for Japan. As a result, Japan has strived to strengthen its public diplomacy. For example, Japan's Foreign Ministry appointed the popular cartoon character Doraemon as the nation's first, anime ambassador` as part of the effort to spread Japanese culture. Public diplomacy is a relatively new concept in Japan. However, as Mitsuru Kitano (2007) analyzed, “the origin of Japan's public diplomacy in the sense of striving to improve Japan's national image abroad dates back to peace treaty negotiations following the Russo-Japanese war (1904-1905, when Japan and Russia each made every effort to attract U.S. public support). This means that public diplomacy has recently been officially adopted by the Japanese government. However, it was actually used by Japanese leaders centuries ago. Japan has been devoted more effort to utilizing public diplomacy.
As defined by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, public diplomacy aims at fulfilling several important functions. First of all, it should assist the dissemination of international situations and diplomatic policies in Japan. Furthermore, it is expected to inform the foreign public of Japan's domestic situation as well as its diplomatic and foreign policies. The next function concerns the implementation of international agreements to promote cultural exchange. Additionally, public diplomacy should promote cooperation between Japan with international cultural organizations. And, last but not least, public diplomacy helps present Japanese culture abroad and promote cultural exchanges with foreign countries. With all these functions, the government expects that public diplomacy could help exert a positive influence on the understanding of foreign people about Japan.
Cultural diplomacy can be said to be the first and most important element of Japan's public diplomacy. Pop-culture, in addition to traditional culture and art, serve as primary tools for cultural diplomacy. As an illustration, "the International MANGA Award" was created in 2007 upon the initiative of then-Minister for Foreign Affairs Mr. Taro Aso with the aim of awarding MANGA creators who contribute to the spread of MANGA culture overseas. Apart from cultural exchange, the Japanese government has also utilized various tools of public diplomacy. In sum, despite facing several limitations, with impressive resources, Japan has a great potential to develop its soft power. The Japanese government has realized the significant role of soft power and has conducted various policies to maximize it. It is undoubtedly that the most important pillar of Japan`s soft power is culture. Cultural diplomacy, as well as public diplomacy both, have included cultural aspects of Japan in its activities, effectively contributing to the expansion of Japanese culture to the outside world. Japan is quite late in realizing the significance of public diplomacy (it was officially adopted by Japan Ministry of Foreign Affairs in 2004 with the establishment of the division of Public Diplomacy104). Nevertheless, public diplomacy is an important tool to enhance Japanese soft power.
In the Post-War period, Japan was remarkably trying to change its image from being a military power to a peaceful country. Japan depended on its cultural trends which were developed, polished and promoted to help Japan in improving its national image initially, while also creating a niche place for Japanese culture internationally. Soft power was considered as an important source for Japan to project its power for its political and economic interests in other countries. However, As Lam (2007) notices, there are several limits of Japan's soft power including historical constraints, lack of CNN or BBC-like institution and it`s a difficult language. Historical constraints include historical issues during the previous war (the well-known case is wartime comfort women mainly from the Philippines, Republic of Korea, China and Taiwan) and recent disputes (for example, the visit of Prime Minister Koizumi to Yasukuni Shrine or the history textbook). Another limit of Japan's soft power is that the country is still distrusted by many East Asian countries and is involved in territorial and resource disputes with China and South Korea over the Senkaku and Takeshima islands respectively. Therefore, while the factors like the establishment of universal institutions or the popularization of the Japanese language to the world will take the time or seem to be difficult, there is an urgent need for Japan to settle historical issues with its neighboring countries to exert its soft power efficiently in these countries. Also, as noticed by Glen S. Fukushima, in the recent times, Countries and regions much smaller than Japan —Singapore, Hong Kong, South-Korea, etc. — are becoming more influential in engaging with the global community in the world of ideas, policy proposals, and intellectual discourse. This setback relates to the lack of critical thinking and English language education among the Japanese which definitely needs to be worked upon. What Japan needs now is a grand strategy to gain its`s supporters and influence the global audience. The traditional and the modern cultural assets will definitely play an important role but they must be deployed aptly in line with the real meaning of soft power—“the ability to get what you want through attraction rather than through coercion.”
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